Energy · Electricity Generation
Electricity Production — Numbers That Matter
How the world generates ~30,000 TWh of electricity each year — and the frontier technologies racing to reshape the mix: nuclear fusion closing in on commercial viability, satellites beaming solar power from orbit, enhanced geothermal tapping Earth's heat anywhere, and next-generation fission reactors promising factory-built scalability. Every number links to a primary source.
Global Electricity Generation (2024)
~30,600 TWh
A new all-time high, up ~4.3% from 2023. Electricity demand is growing faster than total energy demand,
driven by electrification, data centers, and cooling loads in a warming world.
Source: IEA — Global Energy Review 2025 (Mar 2025);
Ember — Global Electricity Review 2025
Clean Power Share (2024)
~40% of global generation
Clean electricity — nuclear + renewables — crossed the 40% threshold for the first time in 2024.
Solar alone added more new generation capacity than any other source for the second consecutive year.
Source: Ember — Global Electricity Review 2025 (Apr 2025)
Fossil Fuel Share (2024)
~60% of global generation
Coal (~35%), natural gas (~22%), and oil (~3%) still dominate. Coal-fired generation grew ~90 TWh in 2024,
but was outpaced by wind+solar+nuclear which grew ~770 TWh combined.
Source: IEA — Global Energy Review 2025 (PDF) (Mar 2025)
Global Electricity Demand Growth
+4.3% year-on-year
The strongest growth rate in years, fueled by extreme heat events boosting air-conditioning loads,
rapid data-center buildout for AI, and accelerating electric vehicle adoption.
Source: IEA — Global Energy Review 2025
Global Generation Mix (2024 Estimate)
~35%
Coal
~10,700 TWh
~22%
Natural Gas
~6,700 TWh
~15%
Hydropower
~4,600 TWh
~10%
Nuclear Fission
~2,900 TWh
~7%
Wind
~2,300 TWh
~6%
Solar PV
~1,900 TWh
~3%
Oil
~800 TWh
~2%
Bio, Geo, Other
~700 TWh
Top Electricity Producers (2024)
The seven largest power consumers — China, USA, EU, India, Russia, Japan, and Brazil — account for 72% of global electricity demand. Source: Ember 2025
⚡ Nuclear Fusion — The Holy Grail of Energy
Recreating the power of the Sun on Earth. After decades of "always 30 years away", fusion is now attracting $15 B+ in private capital and hitting real engineering milestones.
Private Fusion Investment (cumulative)
$15+ billion
Over 45 private fusion companies worldwide. Commonwealth Fusion Systems alone has raised >$2 B;
Helion Energy >$0.5 B; TAE Technologies >$0.88 B. Government programs add tens of billions more (ITER alone: ~$22 B).
Source: Adopter — 25 Key Statistics on Nuclear Fusion for 2026 (Jan 2026)
Highest Fusion Energy Output
69 megajoules
Achieved by JET (Joint European Torus) in the UK in 2024 using only 0.2 mg of fuel — the largest energy value ever
produced in a controlled fusion experiment. NIF (US) demonstrated net energy gain in Dec 2022 (3.15 MJ out vs 2.05 MJ laser input).
Source: Adopter 2026;
LLNL — NIF Ignition
Longest High-Temperature Plasma
1,337 seconds (~22 min)
Achieved by France's WEST tokamak in Feb 2025, sustaining plasma at 50 million °C — breaking the previous record of 1,066 s.
South Korea's KSTAR held 100 million °C plasma for 48 seconds in 2024, aiming for 300 s by 2026.
Source: Adopter 2026
Highest Private-Sector Plasma Temp
150M °C
Achieved by Helion Energy's Polaris prototype in early 2026 — breaking the 100 M °C record previously set by their Trenta machine.
Polaris also became the first privately-funded machine to demonstrate D-T (deuterium-tritium) fusion.
Key Fusion Milestones (2022 – 2027)
A curated timeline of the most significant fusion energy milestones. Each entry is sourced.
Dec 2022
NIF Achieves Net Energy Gain (Ignition)
Inertial Confinement
Lawrence Livermore's National Ignition Facility fires 2.05 MJ of laser energy into a fuel pellet and produces 3.15 MJ — the first time a fusion reaction produced more energy than the driver delivered.
LLNL announcement
Lawrence Livermore's National Ignition Facility fires 2.05 MJ of laser energy into a fuel pellet and produces 3.15 MJ — the first time a fusion reaction produced more energy than the driver delivered.
LLNL announcement
2024
JET Produces 69 MJ — All-Time Fusion Energy Record
Tokamak
The Joint European Torus in the UK, using just 0.2 mg of deuterium-tritium fuel, sets the absolute record for total energy produced in a controlled fusion experiment before being decommissioned.
Adopter compilation
The Joint European Torus in the UK, using just 0.2 mg of deuterium-tritium fuel, sets the absolute record for total energy produced in a controlled fusion experiment before being decommissioned.
Adopter compilation
2024
KSTAR Holds 100 M °C Plasma for 48 Seconds
Tokamak
South Korea's KSTAR superconducting tokamak breaks its own 30-second record from 2021. Target: 300 seconds by 2026.
Adopter 2026
South Korea's KSTAR superconducting tokamak breaks its own 30-second record from 2021. Target: 300 seconds by 2026.
Adopter 2026
Feb 2025
WEST Sets Plasma Duration Record: 1,337 Seconds
Tokamak
France's WEST (Tungsten Environment in Steady-state Tokamak) sustains plasma at 50 million °C for over 22 minutes, breaking the previous 1,066-second world record. Critical for proving steady-state reactor operation.
Adopter 2026
France's WEST (Tungsten Environment in Steady-state Tokamak) sustains plasma at 50 million °C for over 22 minutes, breaking the previous 1,066-second world record. Critical for proving steady-state reactor operation.
Adopter 2026
Oct 2025
CFS Validates SPARC High-Field Magnet Technology
Tokamak — HTS Magnets
Commonwealth Fusion Systems announces that rigorous tests of its toroidal field (TF) magnets — the most powerful fusion magnets ever built — are validated for the SPARC reactor, clearing a critical path for construction.
NEI Magazine (Oct 2025)
Commonwealth Fusion Systems announces that rigorous tests of its toroidal field (TF) magnets — the most powerful fusion magnets ever built — are validated for the SPARC reactor, clearing a critical path for construction.
NEI Magazine (Oct 2025)
Jan 2026
China's EAST Breaks the Greenwald Density Limit
Tokamak
EAST (the "Artificial Sun") achieves stable plasma operation beyond the Greenwald density limit — a fundamental constraint that has capped tokamak performance for 40 years. Since fusion power scales with density², this unlocks vastly higher output potential. Published in Science Advances.
Nature News (Jan 2026); CAS EAST announcement
EAST (the "Artificial Sun") achieves stable plasma operation beyond the Greenwald density limit — a fundamental constraint that has capped tokamak performance for 40 years. Since fusion power scales with density², this unlocks vastly higher output potential. Published in Science Advances.
Nature News (Jan 2026); CAS EAST announcement
Jan 2026
CFS Installs First SPARC Magnet; Partners with Nvidia
Tokamak — Construction
Commonwealth Fusion Systems installs the first of 18 superconducting toroidal field magnets in the SPARC tokamak. Also announces a partnership with Siemens and Nvidia to build a digital twin of the reactor. Target: first plasma in 2027.
TechCrunch (Jan 2026)
Commonwealth Fusion Systems installs the first of 18 superconducting toroidal field magnets in the SPARC tokamak. Also announces a partnership with Siemens and Nvidia to build a digital twin of the reactor. Target: first plasma in 2027.
TechCrunch (Jan 2026)
Feb 2026
Helion Reaches 150 M °C; First Private D-T Fusion
Field-Reversed Configuration
Helion's 7th-gen Polaris prototype achieves 150 million °C and performs the first D-T fusion in a privately funded machine. Construction of the Orion commercial reactor (for Microsoft) began July 2025 in Washington State.
Helion Energy (Feb 2026)
Helion's 7th-gen Polaris prototype achieves 150 million °C and performs the first D-T fusion in a privately funded machine. Construction of the Orion commercial reactor (for Microsoft) began July 2025 in Washington State.
Helion Energy (Feb 2026)
2027 (target)
SPARC — First Plasma
Tokamak
CFS targets first plasma in SPARC, aiming to demonstrate Q > 2 (more energy out than in) using high-temperature superconducting magnets in a compact tokamak — a potential bridge to the commercial ARC reactor.
CFS — SPARC page
CFS targets first plasma in SPARC, aiming to demonstrate Q > 2 (more energy out than in) using high-temperature superconducting magnets in a compact tokamak — a potential bridge to the commercial ARC reactor.
CFS — SPARC page
~2028 (target)
Helion Orion — First Commercial Fusion Electricity
Field-Reversed Config
Helion's Orion is contracted to deliver ≥50 MW of fusion electricity to Microsoft under the world's first fusion PPA (power purchase agreement). If successful, it would be the first fusion machine delivering power to the grid.
Helion Energy
Helion's Orion is contracted to deliver ≥50 MW of fusion electricity to Microsoft under the world's first fusion PPA (power purchase agreement). If successful, it would be the first fusion machine delivering power to the grid.
Helion Energy
🛰️ Space-Based Solar Power — Sunlight That Never Sets
Collecting solar energy in orbit and beaming it to Earth via microwave or laser — 24/7, unaffected by weather or nighttime. Once science fiction, now in active engineering demos.
Concept
Solar panels in orbit → Laser/Microwave → Ground receivers → Grid
A satellite in geostationary orbit (36,000 km) receives sunlight ~24 hours/day with no clouds, seasons, or atmosphere.
It converts sunlight to microwave or infrared laser beams and transmits them to ground receivers. Efficiency losses from conversion and
atmospheric transmission remain key engineering challenges.
Key Players & Milestones
Space-based solar power is attracting both startup investment and national space agency programs. Every entry sourced.
Jun 2023
Caltech SSPD-1 Beams Power from Space
First Orbital Demo
Caltech's Space Solar Power Demonstrator (SSPD-1), launched Jan 2023, successfully demonstrates wireless power transmission in orbit and beams detectable power to a ground receiver on Earth — the first-ever demonstration from space.
Caltech (Jun 2023)
Caltech's Space Solar Power Demonstrator (SSPD-1), launched Jan 2023, successfully demonstrates wireless power transmission in orbit and beams detectable power to a ground receiver on Earth — the first-ever demonstration from space.
Caltech (Jun 2023)
Sep 2025
Aetherflux Raises $60 M for LEO Laser Constellation
Startup · Laser
Founded by Robinhood co-founder Baiju Bhatt, Aetherflux plans a constellation of small LEO satellites beaming energy via infrared laser. Backed by Breakthrough Energy Ventures (Bill Gates), a16z, and others. First launch planned 2026 via SpaceX. Initial customer: US DoD.
CNBC (Sep 2025)
Founded by Robinhood co-founder Baiju Bhatt, Aetherflux plans a constellation of small LEO satellites beaming energy via infrared laser. Backed by Breakthrough Energy Ventures (Bill Gates), a16z, and others. First launch planned 2026 via SpaceX. Initial customer: US DoD.
CNBC (Sep 2025)
Dec 2025
Overview Energy — Beam Power to Existing Solar Farms
Startup · Laser · GEO
Virginia-based Overview Energy emerges from stealth with $20 M in funding. Its unique approach: deploy solar arrays in geostationary orbit (36,000 km) and use infrared lasers to beam power directly onto existing ground-based solar farms at night, turning them into 24/7 power plants. Already demonstrated 5 km laser power transmission via aircraft. Plans: LEO test satellite by 2028; megawatt-scale GEO delivery by 2030.
TechCrunch (Dec 2025)
Virginia-based Overview Energy emerges from stealth with $20 M in funding. Its unique approach: deploy solar arrays in geostationary orbit (36,000 km) and use infrared lasers to beam power directly onto existing ground-based solar farms at night, turning them into 24/7 power plants. Already demonstrated 5 km laser power transmission via aircraft. Plans: LEO test satellite by 2028; megawatt-scale GEO delivery by 2030.
TechCrunch (Dec 2025)
2025
Japan Plans Orbital Solar Power Demo
National Program · Microwave
Japan's JAXA announced plans to test a miniature space-based photoelectric plant that will wirelessly transmit energy using microwaves, building on decades of Japanese research in this field. China has also announced plans for a 1 km-wide orbital solar station.
Space.com (2024)
Japan's JAXA announced plans to test a miniature space-based photoelectric plant that will wirelessly transmit energy using microwaves, building on decades of Japanese research in this field. China has also announced plans for a 1 km-wide orbital solar station.
Space.com (2024)
🔋 Other Scalable Long-Term Power Sources
Beyond fusion and space solar — several proven or near-proven technologies can provide large-scale, durable electricity for decades to come.
Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS)
Anywhere on Earth
Traditional geothermal only works near tectonic plate boundaries. EGS drills deep (3–8 km), fractures hot rock, and circulates water to extract
heat — making geothermal possible anywhere. In 2025, Fervo Energy's "Project Cape" in Utah became the first commercial-scale EGS plant,
delivering 24/7 baseload power to the grid. Fervo secured $206 M in new financing (Jun 2025) and proved drilling costs can fall on par with oil & gas.
The US DOE estimates the US alone has 5,157 GW of EGS potential — enough to power the entire country multiple times over.
Next-Gen Nuclear Fission (SMRs)
68+ designs worldwide
Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) promise factory-built, <300 MW nuclear units deployable in 3–4 years vs. a decade for traditional reactors.
The IAEA's 2024 catalogue lists 68 SMR designs in development. China's 125 MW ACP100 "Linglong One" is under construction at Changjiang (world's first
purpose-built SMR demo). NuScale (US) holds the only NRC design certification. GE Hitachi's BWRX-300 is licensed in Canada with first units
planned for Ontario in the late 2020s.
Hydropower (inc. Pumped Storage)
~4,600 TWh/yr
The world's largest single source of clean electricity, providing ~15% of global generation. Pumped-storage hydro (PSH) accounts for
~95% of global grid-scale energy storage capacity (~160 GW). New large-scale projects are limited by geography, but existing dams have
significant untapped potential through efficiency upgrades and adding generation to non-powered dams.
Source: IEA — Global Energy Review 2025
Tidal & Wave Energy
~0.5 GW installed
Highly predictable (tides follow the Moon), but still early-stage and expensive. The world's largest tidal barrage is South Korea's Sihwa Lake (254 MW).
The UK, France, and Canada lead in tidal stream (underwater turbines). The theoretical global potential is ~1,200 TWh/yr — roughly 4% of current demand —
but deployment remains niche. Significant cost reductions needed for scalability.
Offshore Wind (inc. Floating)
~75 GW installed globally
Offshore wind farms produce roughly twice the energy per MW of capacity compared to onshore, thanks to stronger, steadier ocean winds.
Floating offshore wind — turbines anchored to floating platforms — unlocks deep-water sites (>60 m depth) that hold ~80% of global offshore wind potential.
The world's first commercial floating wind farm (Hywind Scotland, 30 MW) has been running since 2017.
Source: IEA 2025
Conventional Geothermal
~16 GW installed
Proven 24/7 baseload power with near-zero emissions and >90% capacity factor. Limited to volcanically active regions:
Iceland (28% of power), Kenya (51%), New Zealand, Philippines, Indonesia, and the US (the Geysers in California, 1.5 GW). Combined with
EGS, geothermal could theoretically serve a much larger share of global demand.
Source: World Nuclear Association
Frontier Power Sources — At a Glance
Comparing the most promising large-scale, long-duration electricity sources. "Timeline" indicates expected first commercial grid delivery.
| Technology | Type | Capacity Factor | Timeline | Scalability |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nuclear Fusion | Baseload | ~80–90% (projected) | ~2028–2035 | Virtually unlimited |
| Space-Based Solar | Baseload (24/7) | ~90% (projected) | ~2030–2040 | Orbital capacity |
| Enhanced Geothermal (EGS) | Baseload (24/7) | >90% | 2025 (operational) | 5,100+ GW (US alone) |
| SMR Nuclear Fission | Baseload | ~90% | ~2027–2030 | Factory-built modular |
| Offshore Wind (Floating) | Variable | ~45–55% | Operational (scaling) | Very high (deep water) |
| Tidal & Wave | Predictable variable | ~25–30% | 2030s+ (at scale) | ~1,200 TWh/yr potential |
| Conventional Geothermal | Baseload (24/7) | >90% | Operational (mature) | Site-limited |